A Modality-Based Analysis of the Prefaces of Kelileh va Demneh
Subject Areas : Research in Iranian classical literaturebatul vaez 1 * , Elaheh Motamedi 2
1 - Associate Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, Allameh Tabataba’i University, Iran.
2 - M.A in Persian Language and Literature, Allameh Tabataba’i University, Iran.
Keywords: Modality, Kelileh va Demneh, Speech Functions, Modality Devices, Authorial Perspective.,
Abstract :
Kelileh va Demneh is one of the most prominent ancient didactic texts of Persian literature, with its major focus on moral dos and don'ts in the realms of ethics, politics, religion, and culture. These imperatives, which possess a commanding nature, can lead to a direct and tedious tone in the discourse, potentially delaying the act of persuasion in the didactic process. In this study, we employed the concept of modality to examine the three introductory prefaces of this book (the translator's preface, Ibn al-Muqaffa's preface, and Borzuya the Physician's preface) in terms of modality and how the authors’ perspectives are realized in the language. Accordingly, we selected 500 sentences from the three prefaces and analyzed them concerning seven components: the subject, mood of the clause, speech function of the clause, modality, modality devices, source of judgment (modality orientation), and techniques for indirectness (implicitness) of speech. We primarily analyzed how modality functioned in the relationship between language and ideology, and which modality devices had the highest frequency in the text. The findings, based on statistical data, revealed that Monshi, through various linguistic mechanisms such as grammatical metaphor, the use of objects instead of subjects, complex sentence structures, allegory, and Qur'anic and historical intertextuality, reduced the explicitness of obligation and compulsion, thereby aligning the audience with his perspective to achieve a persuasive effect. The high frequency of declarative clauses and the low percentage of interrogative and imperative mood indicate the decisiveness of the author's discourse and the alignment of this linguistic style with the didactic genre of rhetoric. The most frequent modality devices in this corpus were, respectively, indicative verbs, modal verbs, and modal adjuncts, which align with the rhetorical discourse of the text, and aimed at further corroboration and persuasion of the audience.
Keywords: Mood, Modality, Kelileh va Demneh, Speech Functions, Modality Devices, Ideology and Author’s Perspective.
Introduction
Modality is a semantic category that reflects the speaker's attitude toward the degree of truth, credibility, and decisiveness in expressing a proposition. The definition of modality is not uniform. Palmer attributes this lack of consistency to the ambiguity and semantic diversity inherent in the phenomenon of modality. In general terms, modality is the expression of the speaker’s perspective regarding the occurrence of an event in the world. This world may be external, objective, and real, or internal, subjective, and imaginary. The common and central concept among all possibilities is an occurrence or ‘event’. Modality expresses the speaker’s stance on this event (Baravardeh & Gohari, 2022: 119). Halliday introduces modality in connection with speech functions. Before defining modality, he first describes the speech functions within the interpersonal domain (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004: 26).
The fundamental speech functions underlying all other speech functions are ‘giving’ and ‘demanding’. Thus, linguistic communication can be viewed as an interaction and exchange. The object of this exchange is either information or goods and services. If the object is information, the function of giving is realized through statements, and the function of demanding is realized through questions. If the object of exchange is goods and services, the function of giving is expressed as offers, and the function of demanding is expressed as commands. Accordingly, there are four primary speech functions: statement, question, offer, and command.
Halliday designates any structure at the clause level specifically dedicated to the grammatical realization of one of the primary speech functions as ‘mood’. In his view, the speech function of the clause plays a significant role in determining the type and concept of modality. For instance, probability and usuality are predominantly associated with clauses involving the exchange of information (statement and question), whereas obligation and inclination are tied to clauses with the functions of offer and command (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004: 618). Hence, Halliday identifies four main types of modality: probability, usuality, inclination, and obligation. He conceptualizes modality as a spectrum between two poles—positive and negative. The linguistic realization of modality in language occurs through various devices and elements. Halliday identifies four types of modality devices: modal adjuncts, grammatical metaphors, modal auxiliary verbs, and the mood of the verb.
One of the texts that stands out significantly in terms of the relationship between language, ideology, and power is Kelileh va Demneh. The speaker's (Nasrollah Monshi's) perspective and viewpoint in this book are expressed through two forms: narrative (indirect expression of viewpoints) and proposition (direct expression of viewpoints). Analyzing the relationship between language and power in this text through the system of modality reveals new dimensions of its discourse. Specifically, it shows how Nasrollah Monshi has utilized narrative and other modality devices to represent his views indirectly, without resorting to explicit coercion or command. Through various philosophical and wisdom-based sources, he has articulated his judgments and evaluations concerning politics, religion, ethics, power, and more, with a high degree of credibility that persuades and convinces the audience.
To explore the relationship between language and discourse in the prefaces of Kelileh va Demneh, we have employed Halliday's theory of modality within the domain of interpersonal metafunction.
Keywords: Modality, Kelileh va Demneh, Speech Functions, Modality Devices, Authorial Perspective.
Research Methodology
To analyze modality, we selected Nasrollah Monshi's Kelileh va
Demneh as the research corpus. We examined 500 clauses from the perspective of modality. The analysis of modality in this text was primarily based on Halliday's theory and within the framework of systemic functional linguistics.
In the analysis of the clauses, several components were considered, including the mood of the clause, speech function, modality concepts, orientation or source of judgment, and techniques for indirect expression of obligation and compulsion. Given that each primary function, beyond its linguistic meaning, can also represent secondary meanings and functions, we also noted the possible secondary meanings of the speech functions under the component of the clause’s speech function, depending on the context and textual setting. Following the statistical description of the data through charts and quantitative analysis, we proceeded to a qualitative analysis of the text. This included examining modality, the author's perspective, and the underlying ideology of the text based on the statistical findings.
Research Findings
Given the inherently instructive nature of didactic texts, it is expected that the speech functions of the language would predominantly involve requests and a high frequency of obligatory modality. However, upon reading the prefaces of Kelileh va Demneh, we find minimal direct commands or coercion. The frequency of declarative clauses at 95.5% and imperative clauses at 2% reflects this reality. This feature aligns with the nature of didactic literature, which, alongside persuasion and instruction, also engages with aesthetic expression and does not solely focus on pure teaching. The author relies significantly on techniques of indirectness in speech.
The other primary function of the sentences is to convey information, characterized by their declarative and explanatory nature. Such sentences express certainty and a lack of doubt, making them more effective than imperative sentences. All three prefaces fall within the genre of ‘rhetoric’ (khatabeh) in terms of linguistic eloquence and logic. In rhetoric, the speaker often holds a position of authority above the audience or listener.
Thus, there is minimal use of interrogative and imperative speech functions. The low percentages of interrogative (2.3%) and imperative (8.8%) speech functions compared to declarative (88.9%) illustrate the speaker's linguistic and situational authority. In none of the three prefaces do we encounter linguistic instability, weakness, or flexibility.
Among the two primary speech functions—giving and demanding—the ‘giving’ function, which involves the linguistic transfer of information, is more prominent in the text.
The highest frequency of modality devices, at 64%, belongs to indicative verbs. Subjunctive mood accounts for 14%, and imperative mood constitutes only 1.3%. The indicative mood conveys the speaker's firm and unwavering attitude toward the content of the clauses, while subtly imparting an indirect sense of obligation to the audience.
Modal verbs constitute another modality device, comprising 6% of the total data. Among these, the verb bāyestan ("must") is the most distinctly modal. Modal adjuncts are another modality device, accounting for 7% of the total data. According to the analysis, in 74% of cases, the source of judgment is the speaker, while in 26% of cases, the sources are external (such as verses, narrations, the Qur’an, Islamic law, etc.).
Another technique for indirectness is the use of general terms, which account for 22% of the total data, and ambiguous terms, which constitute 13%. Together, these comprise 35% of the data. The author employs general and ambiguous words to indirectly address elements under obligation, reducing the sense of coercion in the audience’s mind.
Focusing on the object instead of the subject is another prominent strategy, representing 18% of the total data. This shift from the known subject (sujet) to the object of knowledge (object) serves to avoid direct reference to imperatives and prohibitions.
Other methods—such as the use of allegory, third-person and non-addressive forms, metaphorical expression, passive constructions, and an implied or textual audience—make up the remaining 19% of the data. Allegory, whether at the sentence or textual level, is a key method of indirect expression. However, given that most analyzed sentences were selected from the prefaces, the frequency of this technique is relatively low.
Modality effectively represents the dominant discourse of power in the text within the realm of language.
References
Aghagolzadeh, F., & Abbasi, Z (2012) An analysis of verb moods in Persian based on the theory of mental spaces. Adab Pazhuhi, 6(20), 135–154. (in Persian)
Ahmadi, A., Forsati Jouybari, R., & Parsaie, H. (2021) An investigation of modality in the novel My Dear Husband is based on Fowler's perspective. Journal of Language Research, 13(38), 327–352. (in Persian)
Akhlaqi, F. (2007) Necessity, possibility, and ability: Three modal verbs in modern Persian. Dastour Journal, 3, 82–131. (in Persian)
Bahrami Khoshid, S. (2019) Cognitive grammar: Theoretical foundations and its application in Persian (1st ed.). Tehran: Samt. (in Persian)
Baravarde, M., & Gohari, H. (2022) An examination of mood and modality and their representation in Persian. Studies of Linguistic and Literary Criticism, 6(22), 115–126. (in Persian)
Farshidvard, K. (2009) Comprehensive contemporary grammar. Tehran: Sokhan. (in Persian)
Forouzandeh, M., & Benitaleb, A. (2014) Reflections of the poet’s perspective in the syntax of Vis and Ramin. Textual Criticism of Persian Literature, 2, 1–22. (in Persian)
Fotouhi, M. (2012) Stylistics: Theories, approaches, and methods (1st ed.). Tehran: Sokhan. (in Persian)
Fowler. R (2011) Linguistics and novel. (M. Ghaffari, Trans). Tehran: Ney. (In Persian)
Goudarzi, S., & Mousavi, M. (2020) The rhetoric of modality in Ghaznavid courtly panegyric poetry. Journal of Literary Criticism and Rhetoric, 9(3), 133–151. (in Persian)
Halliday. M. A. K., & Matthiessen, C. (2004) An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Arnold.
Ilkhanipoor, N., & Karimi Doostan, G. (2016) Lexicalization of semantic dimensions of modality in Persian modal adjectives. Journal of Language Research, 8(19), 65–87. (in Persian)
Johnson, M. (2019) The body in the mind (3rd ed.; J. Mirzabeygi, Trans.). Tehran: Agah. (in Persian)
Karimi Doostan, G., & Ilkhanipoor, N. (2012) The modality system in Persian. Journal of Language Research, 3(1), 77–98. (in Persian)
Kazemipour Navayi, N., Sojoudi, F., Fazeli, M., & Sasani, F. (2015) From certainty to doubt: Transformation of modality in the protagonist of the novel Tooba and the Meaning of Night based on social semiotics. Literary Criticism Quarterly, 8(32), 133–154. (in Persian)
Khanlari, P. (1987) The history of the Persian language (Vol. 2). Tehran: Noe. (in Persian)
Lyons, J. (2012) Introduction to linguistic semantics (K. Safavi, Trans.). Tehran: Elmi. (in Persian)
Meshkatoddini, M. (2000) The history of linguistics. Mashhad: Ferdowsi University Press. (in Persian)
Mirzaei, A. (2021) The relationship between polarity and modality in Persian. Research in Western Iranian Languages and Dialects, 9(32), 113–135. (in Persian)
Monshi, N. (2002) Kalileh va Demneh (21st impression). Tehran: Amir Kabir. (in Persian)
Moradi, R. (2012) Modality and mood in Sorani Kurdish: A syntactic and semantic approach [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Allameh Tabataba'i University. (in Persian)
Palmer, F. R. (2001/1986) Mood and modality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rahimian, J., & Amoozadeh, M. (2013) Modal verbs in Persian and the expression of modality. Journal of Language Research, 4(1), 21–40. (in Persian)
Tamimdari, A., & Sadri, N. (2014) A stylistic study of modality in Saadi's Golestan within the framework of systemic functional grammar. Pazhouhesh-e Zaban va Adabiyyat-e Farsi, 33, 141–181. (in Persian)
آقاگل¬زاده، فردوس و زهرا عباسی (1391) «بررسی وجه فعل در زبان فارسی بر پایة نظریة فضاهای ذهنی»، ادب¬پژوهی، دورة ششم، شماره 20، صص 135-154.
احمدی، آرام و دیگران (1400) «بررسی مقولة وجهیت در رمان شوهر عزیز من اثر فریبا کلهر بر اساس دیدگاه فاولر»، زبان¬پژوهی، دورة سیزدهم، شماره 38، صص 327-352.
اخلاقی، فریار (1386) «بایستن، شدن و توانستن، سه فعل وجهی در فارسی امروز»، مجلة دستور، شماره 3، صص 82-131.
ایلخانی¬پور، نرگس و غلامحسین کریمی دوستان (1395) «واژگانی¬شدگی ابعاد معنایی وجهیت در صفات وجهی فارسی»، زبان¬پژوهی، سال هشتم، شماره 19، صص 65-87.
برآورده، مهرانگیز و حبیب گوهری (1401) «بررسی وجه و وجه¬نمایی و تشریح آن در زبان فارسی»، مطالعات نقد زبانی و ادبی، سال ششم، شماره 22، صص 115-126.
بهرامی خورشید، سحر (1398) دستور شناختی (مبانی نظری و کاربست آن در زبان فارسی)، تهران، سمت.
تمیم¬داری، احمد و نیره صدری (1393) «مطالعه سبک¬شناختی وجه¬نمایی در گلستان سعدی در چارچوب دستور نقش¬گرای نظاممند»، پژوهش زبان و ادبیات فارسی، شماره 33، صص ۱۴۱-۱۸۱.
جانسون، مارک (1398) بدن در ذهن، ترجمة جهانشاه میرزابیگی، چاپ سوم، تهران، آگاه.
خانلری، پرویز (1366) تاریخ زبان فارسی، جلد دوم، تهران، نو.
رحیمیان، جلال و محمد عموزاده (1392) «افعال وجهی در زبان فارسی و بیان وجهیت»، پژوهش¬های زبانی، دورة چهارم، شماره 1، صص 21-40.
فتوحی، محمود (1391) سبک¬شناسی، نظریه¬ها، رویکردها و روش¬ها، تهران، سخن.
فرشیدورد، خسرو (1388) دستور مفصل امروز، تهران، سخن.
فروزنده، مسعود و امین بنی¬طالب (1393) «بازتاب دیدگاه شاعر در نحو منظومة ویس و رامین»، متن¬شناسی ادب فارسی، شماره ۲، صص ۱-22.
کاظمی¬پور نوایی، ندا و دیگران (1394) «از یقین به تردید: تحول وجه¬نمایی قهرمان رمان طوبی و معنای شب از دیدگاه نشانه¬شناسی اجتماعی»، نقد ادبی، دورة هشتم، شمارة 32، صص 133-154.
کریمی دوستان، غلامحسین و نگین ایلخانی¬پور (1391) «نظام وجهیت در زبان فارسی»، پژوهش-های زبانی، دورة سوم، شماره 1، صص 77-98.
گودرزی، سیاوش و مصطفی موسوی (1399) «بلاغت وجهیت در شعر مدحی دربار غزنوی»، پژوهشنامة نقد ادبی و بلاغت، دورة نهم، شماره 3، صص 133-151.
لاینز، جان (1391) درآمدی بر معناشناسی زبان، ترجمة کوروش صفوی، تهران، علمی.
مرادی، روناک (1391) وجه¬نمایی و وجه در کردی سورانی، رویکردی نحوی و معنایی، رسالة دکتری، رشتة زبان¬شناسی، استاد راهنما محمد دبیرمقدم، دانشگاه علامه طباطبایی تهران، دانشکدة ادبیات.
مشکوه¬الدینی، مهدی (1379) سیر زبان¬شناسی، مشهد، دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد.
منشی، نصرالله (1381) کلیله و دمنه، چاپ بیست¬و¬یکم، تهران، امیرکبیر.
میرزایی، آزاده (1400) «رابطة قطبیت و وجهیت¬بندی در زبان فارسی»، مطالعات زبان و گویشهای غرب ایران، سال نهم، شماره 32، صص 113-135.
Fowler. R (2011) Linguistics and novel. (M. Ghaffari, Trans). Tehran: Ney (In Persian).
Halliday. M. A. K and Matthiessen, Christian (2004) An Introduction To Functional Grammar, London. Arnold.
Palmer. F.R. (2001) mood and modality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
--------------- (1986) mood and modality, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.