Baghdad in the Mirror of Persian Literature (Analysis of Various Representations of Baghdad in Persian Literary Texts from the 4th to the 8th Century AH)
Subject Areas : Research in Iranian classical literature
1 - Associate Professor, Department of of Persian Language and Literature, University of Jiroft, Jiroft, Iran.
Keywords: Baghdad, Persian poetry and literature, Arabic literature, Islamic and Iranian culture. ,
Abstract :
This article aims to analyze and examine Baghdad's representations and address why they appear in Persian literary works until the 8th century AH. The study uses a descriptive and analytical approach. The most significant depictions of Baghdad in Persian literature appear up until the 7th century AH, i.e., before the fall of Baghdad. Part of this reflection relates to the word "Baghdad" itself, which is prominently used in literary texts with its literal, figurative, and symbolic meanings, as well as in proverbs. Another aspect can be found in Baghdad's descriptions, both praise and criticism. Descriptions of titles, names, and noble figures of Baghdad, along with the poet's admiration for it, are examples of the city's praise. The disorder in Baghdad during a certain period, combined with some historical and narrative accounts, led to criticisms of the city. The city's architectural works and its role as the center of the Abbasid Caliphate and a hub of knowledge and civilization contributed to its fame.
Keywords: Baghdad, Persian poetry and literature, Arabic literature, Islamic and Iranian culture.
Introduction
Baghdad was one of the most influential cities in the Islamic world, founded in 145 AH by the Caliph Mansur, and became the center of the Abbasid Caliphate. Parts of Iraq, before Islam, were under the control of the Iranians and the Sassanid kings. Not only is the name Baghdad considered Persian (Dehkhoda, 1998: Baghdad), but even the circular design of Baghdad—a unique example of city planning in the Islamic period—was largely modeled after Persian cities (Zarrinkoub, 2013: 414-416). In this regard, the Arab culture of Iraq, especially Baghdad, was deeply intertwined with Iranian culture. From the 5th century onward, the widespread use of the Persian language in Baghdad significantly influenced the Arabic spoken there (Shafi'i-Kadkani, 2007: 30). Cultural exchanges are also notable. Practices like Sufi gatherings in Baghdad’s khanqahs with Persian poetry (Ibid), referring to Baghdad’s noble figures with the Persian term "ayyar," and the celebration of Iranian festivals such as Sadeh and Nowruz in Baghdad (Mosaafa, 1986: 381), all serve as clear examples of the influence of Iranian language and culture in Baghdad.
Given Baghdad's significance, poets and writers have paid special attention to the city, not only describing its characteristics but also using it as a backdrop for rhetorical techniques, artistic creativity, and the creation of themes and figures of speech. This article aims to show how Persian poets and writers have referenced Baghdad in their works, what artistic innovations it inspired, and why this city appears so frequently in Persian literature.
Baghdad in Persian Literature
The Word "Baghdad"
Sometimes, poets create beautiful expressions through the word and root of "Baghdad" by using similes and compound puns. What is significant in such imagery is that Baghdad, in these cases, becomes the object of comparison in the structure of the simile, which itself indicates the importance of Baghdad. Another noteworthy point in such instances is the implicit reference to the Persian origin of the word "Baghdad" (Nizami, 2004: 2/308; Khaghani, 2014: 355, 929; Rumi, 2021: 156).
The fame of Baghdad has led to the creation of proverbs and idioms, which have sometimes arisen due to Baghdad’s remarkable prosperity, its economic turmoil at certain times, and the absolute rule of the Islamic caliphs. Examples include: “Decreasing the basket from Baghdad” (Nizami, 2004: 1/229; Rumi, 2021: 276), and "The Marvel of Baghdad" (Dehkhoda, 1998, under "The Marvel of Baghdad").
At other times, poets and mystics, considering the scientific and spiritual importance of Baghdad, have created subtle metaphorical and figurative expressions about the city. The following are examples: “Baghdad of immortality / Baghdad of the soul” (Khaghani, 2014: 447 and 453), “Baghdad of the world” (Rumi, 2021: 331, 245, 222; Nizami, 1983: 617), and “Baghdad of beauty” (Rashiduddin Watwat, 1940: 321).
Descriptions of Baghdad
Praise of Baghdad
In general, Baghdad appears in literary texts from two perspectives: it has both been praised and criticized, a phenomenon that is also seen in Arabic literature (Hamavi, 2018: 1/460-467). In Persian literature, in addition to the scattered descriptions of Baghdad, some poets have independently praised the city or composed elegies for it (Anvari, 1985: 111–115; Khaghani, 2014: 804, 950–953; Saadi, 2006: 983 and 1139). Often, the poets' praise of Baghdad is found in their longing and desire to go there (Khaghani, 2014: 2, 866, 804; Saadi, 2006: 762).
Criticism of Baghdad
Some of the criticisms of Baghdad are based on religious and ideological beliefs, while others reflect perspectives on the situation and condition of the city and its people at certain points in history. As a result, contrasting views about Baghdad are evident. For example, in some sources, the people of Baghdad are praised for their nobility and chivalry (Qushayri, 2009: 409; Attar, 2020: 144; Ibn-Jawzi, 1963 AH: 31), while others accuse them of injustice and stinginess (Al-Buhturi: n.d.: 1/460; Khaghani, 2014: 851, 875, 927, and 928). The first view, based on mystic thought, refers to a time when the values of chivalry and nobility flourished in Baghdad. The second view may indicate a period when the people of Baghdad, due to reasons such as famine and economic turmoil, were unable to demonstrate selflessness or sacrifice. Sometimes, this criticism is also attributed to narrative sources (Ibn-Jawzi, 2963 AH: 5). For instance, the soil of Baghdad was considered part of usurped endowments (Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, 2011: 1/34-50; Majlisi, 2023 AH: 5/279 and 14/211).
The Representation of Mystical Concepts from Baghdad
Speech, Mysticism, and Islamic Knowledge
Baghdad was the most important city for the emergence of interactions and confrontations between Islamic sects. The caliphs' interest in scientific discussions, the establishment of the scientific institution "Bayt al-Hikma" by the Abbasid Caliph Al-Ma'mun, and the founding of the "Nizamiyah" school by Khwaja Nizam al-Mulk Tusi, as well as the caliphs' attention to theological and doctrinal debates, all contributed to the city's intellectual prosperity (Zarrinkoub, 2013: 438). These theological ideas are reflected in various forms in Persian mystical literary texts (Attar, 2020: 253; Hujwiri, 2019: 178 and 232). The names of famous mystics from Baghdad and their teachings are prominently featured in Persian mystical literature (Attar, 2020: 454; Rumi, 2021: 919).
The Wise Madmen of Baghdad
The stories of the "wise madmen" originated in Baghdad itself. Bahlool (died 190 AH) was one of the most prominent figures of this group from Kufa and Baghdad, and the term "Bahalil" for the wise madmen reflects the connection to the Baghdad-based Bahlool. The stories of these figures are frequently found in mystical literature, particularly in the works of Attar of Nishapur (Attar, 1394: 206, 238, 281).
Representation of Baghdad's Locations
The Markets of Baghdad
The geographical position of Baghdad, along with its active inhabitants and the encouragement of trade by the government and the prestige of the caliphate, soon turned the city into a major commercial center (Duri, 1996: 21). Baghdad's markets, with their vastness, likely had many names (Ibn-Jawzi, 1963 AH: 32), but the only market specifically mentioned in Persian literary texts is the "Souq al-Thulatha" (Khaghani, 2014: 26; Attar, 2007: 127; Qatran Tabrizi, 1983: 414). Occasionally, the fires in these markets are reflected in Persian literary texts (Attar, 2020: 489, 337, 338, 228; Saadi, 2006: 334).
The Tombs of Baghdad
For information on the number of schools, mosques, baths, and tombs in Baghdad, one should refer to "The History of Baghdad" by Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi and "The Virtues of Baghdad" by Ibn-Jawzi. Among these, the name "Shuniziyah" stands out more prominently in Persian texts (Khaghani, 2014: 39). Shuniziyah, or Shuniziyyah, was a neighborhood on the western side of Baghdad, which had a famous cemetery, as well as a mosque and a khanqah (Sufi lodge). Many mystics are buried there (Hamavi, 2018 AH: 3/374; Ibn-Jawzi, 1963 AH: 29). Shuniziyah is most often mentioned in connection with Sufism and mysticism in Persian mystical literature (Qushayri, 2009: 299, 142; Hujwiri, 2019: 189, 473).
Neighborhoods of Baghdad
Baghdad had many neighborhoods, several of which are mentioned by name in Persian literature, including "Karkh," "Hilla," "Faludhaj," and "Bab al-Taq." Among these, Karkh has the most prominent mention. Karkh was one of the prosperous districts of Baghdad, founded by Shapur Dhul-Aktaf. In addition to its beauty, Karkh was also one of the famous commercial areas of the city (Khaghani, 2014: 355, 950; Farrokhi Sistani, 1966: 38; Fakhruddin Gurgani, 1998: 220; Nizami, 2004: 2/175; Sana'i, 1986: 427, 682).
The Rivers of Baghdad
The Tigris River, the famous river of Baghdad, has a high frequency of mention in Persian literature and has served as a source of inspiration for many poetic themes and motifs. In Persian literature, exaggeration is often used to show the abundance of something, such as comparing or likening wine and tears to the waters of the Tigris (Sana'i, 2009: 804; Hafez, 2008: 226). Some poets, based on their philosophical views and for the sake of honor, have created more allegories based on the Tigris (Saadi, 2006: 469 and 245).
Leisure and wine-drinking by the banks of the Tigris in Baghdad are other instances of the river’s reflection in Persian literature (Anvari, 1985: 111-115; Khaghani, 2014: 927 and 928; Mu'izzi, 1318: 479; Hafez, 2008: 357).
Conclusion
The close connection between Baghdad and Iran (Persian Iraq) has led to the blending of cultures and languages between the two. The most significant representation of Baghdad in Persian literature appears up until the 7th century AH, that is, until the fall of Baghdad. The word "Baghdad" has manifested in Persian literary works in the forms of puns, congruence, allegory, metaphor, and symbolism. Sometimes, Baghdad has been described in Persian literature both positively and negatively. The descriptions of titles and names of Baghdad, chivalry, the beautiful youth of Baghdad, and the poets' affection for it are part of the positive portrayal of Baghdad. The spread of social crimes due to famine, internal chaos, and the confiscation of land has contributed to the negative depiction of Baghdad. Since Baghdad was a hub of knowledge, learning, and mysticism, this has increased its fame. However, one must not ignore the presence of the mentally ill and the asylums of Baghdad. At times, we see Baghdad's representation with its close ties with the Caliphs. The Caliphs of Baghdad played a major and decisive role in all aspects and affairs. On other occasions, the markets, tombs, bridges, neighborhoods, and rivers in Baghdad have contributed to the themes and manifestations of Baghdad in Persian literature. In some instances, many of the perspectives about Baghdad in Persian literature are translated from Arabic literature.
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