Wisdom, Prudence, and Counsel among the Women of the Shahnameh

perInstitute of Humanities and Social Studiesپژوهش زبان و ادبیات فارسی1735-10302821-03952025-102377130articleWisdom, Prudence, and Counsel among the Women of the ShahnamehAmir Vasegh abbasia.vacegh@yahoo.com1abdolali oveisi kahkhaoveisi@lihu.usb.ac.ir2abdollah vasegh abbasivacegh40@yahoo.com3Ph.D Student in Persian Language and Literature, University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran.Associate Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran.Associate Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran.Wisdom, Prudence, and Counsel among the Women of the Shahnameh   Amir Vasegh Abbasi<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">*</a> Abdolali Oveysi Kahkha<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2">**</a> Abdollah Vasegh Abbasi<a href="#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3">***</a> The Shahnameh, as a literary masterpiece, is not only a reflection of valor, the narration of wars, and unparalleled epics, but also a platform for intellect, wisdom, and a field for the clash of ideas and the valuable experiences of our ancestors, which have been preserved as civic and cultural traits. The prominent presence of women in most stories of the Shahnameh, on par with men, is admirable. This brilliance and active participation in various arenas—including complex socio-political crises—accompanied by intelligence and chastity, is striking. Although commendable studies have been conducted on the subject of women in Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh—mainly regarding narrative, emotional, and some other aspects—no independent research has yet focused on the wisdom and consultative roles of women in Iran’s national epic. This highlights the necessity of such a study. This article is composed using a descriptive-analytical method and a library-based approach, aiming to both demonstrate the bravery and beauty of women in perilous and dramatic scenes of battle and festivity across the mythical and historical periods of the Shahnameh, and portray their capacity for competence, problem-solving, and intelligence in full grace and dignity. Keywords: Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, women, wisdom, prudence, counsel.   Introduction Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh is an encyclopedia of human values, brilliant literary and cultural principles, and the national and ancient honors of the land of Iran. In fact, the Shahnameh serves as a comprehensive mirror reflecting the customs, bravery, sacrifices, ethics, religion, wisdom, and other manifestations of the culture, history, and civilization of ancient Iran, capturing the thoughts, ideals, and emotional ups and downs of the Iranian people—from the dawn of history to the reign of Yazdegerd. Ministers, astrologers, soothsayers, priests, elders, champions, and close aides play a primary role in consultation and deliberation over various affairs. The prominent and remarkable presence of women in preserving, promoting, strengthening, and stabilizing Iran’s moral, cultural, and historical values has had a significant impact. The multifaceted role of women—as mothers, wives, advisors, ambassadors, warriors, and even heads of power—carried out with intelligence, wisdom, and devotion, is particularly striking. The importance of consultation and deliberation in different aspects of individual and social life is so emphasized that it is recommended implicitly in the Holy Quran, including verse 38 of Surah Ash-Shura (“And consult them in affairs”), verse 174 of Al-Imran (“And consult them in the matter”), and also verses 17 and 18 of Surah Az-Zumar. Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh is a rich treasury of wisdom and rationality, “in which the words wisdom and wise appear more than 500 times, and the word ‘enlightened’ appears more than 150 times” (Wolf, 1998, under the entries for wisdom and enlightened), and prudence and consultation are frequently mentioned throughout. In the Shahnameh, “there are several very noble women whose variety and valor cannot be found in other Persian works, nor even in the great ancient works of other countries. Most women in the Shahnameh are exemplary in all respects. While possessing wisdom, magnanimity, and even bravery, they are also richly endowed with feminine essence” (Eslami Nadooshan, 2012, p. 113). However, this very Shahnameh has sometimes fallen victim to unfair interpretations and judgments, which accuse it of misogyny, either due to political considerations or ignorance (Abbasi & Ghobadi, 2010, pp. 109–138). For example, Nöldeke stated in The National Epic of Iran: “Women do not hold an important position in the Shahnameh. Their presence in the poem is mostly through desire or love” (Nöldeke, 2000, p. 161). The Danish orientalist Christensen says: “Men’s behavior towards women in ancient Iran was accompanied by courtesy. Women, both in private and social life, enjoyed complete freedom” (Christensen, 1958, p. 75). Eslami Nadooshan writes in the book Sarv Saye Fakkan: “The presence of women in the Shahnameh—which is a book of war—adds a delicacy that cannot be found in any similar epic” (Eslami Nadooshan, 1996, p. 102). It is noteworthy that only the names of some women appear in the Shahnameh, such as Māhāfarid, Kanizak (who is pregnant by Iraj), Espinou (the maid of Tazhav the Turanian), Faghostān (daughter of Kid the Indian), Nāhid (daughter of Caesar of Rome), and others. Some others have a faint presence, such as the daughters of Sarv Yemenī, Homāy and Behāfarid (sisters of Esfandiyār), Roshanak (daughter of Dara), and so forth. A number of women have a brief but effective presence, such as the mother of Siāvo&scaron;, Sepinoud (daughter of Shangol, king of India), Golshahr (wife of Piran Viseh), Jarireh (daughter of Piran and mother of Forud), Malakeh (daughter of Tayr Ghassāni), Nūshe (aunt of Shapur Zul-Aktaf), daughter of Mehrak Noshzad, Pourandokht (daughter of Khosrow Parviz of the Sassanid dynasty), and others. The presence of some others is dazzling and astonishing, such as Tahmineh, Gordāfarid (daughter of Gojdaham), Homāy Chehrzād (daughter of Bahman), Golnār (daughter of Kanizak Ardavān), and more. Beyond these, in the Shahnameh there are a number of wise, farsighted, advisory, and, in a word, consummate women whose presence and role in the course of Iran’s national epic is very influential and decisive, such as Farānak (mother of Fereydun), Sindokht (wife of Mehrāb of Kabul), Rudābeh (mother of Rostam), Farangis (wife of Siāvo&scaron; and mother of Kay Khosrow), Katāyun (mother of Esfandiyār), Manijeh (daughter of Afrāsiyāb), Qeydāfeh (ruler of Andalusia), Gerdieh (sister of Bahram Chobin), and others. Conclusion The Shahnameh, in addition to being an unparalleled masterpiece in the realms of battle and festivity, is also an enduring work in ethical and educational teachings, governance, philanthropy, individual and social life, and councils of consultation and problem-solving. The evidence shows that the intelligence of women in the Shahnameh, beyond their special roles as mothers, wives, and lovers, has had a significant role in shaping and structuring political power, important matters of statecraft, and the interaction and balance of elements contributing to the growth, stability, or decline of royal dynasties. In Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, numerous verses reveal the wisdom, foresight, consultation, and responsibility of Iranian women, reflecting their distinguished status and position in the history and civilization of the Iranian people. Among the prominent traits of women in the Shahnameh are wisdom, purity and piety, modesty and bravery, fearlessness and valor, skillfulness and problem-solving ability, artistry and eloquence, and especially politics and prudence. The women of the Shahnameh, even those who are non-Iranian—except for Sudabeh and one or two others—are generally unique in their loyalty and devotion, preservation of respect and family stability, and their roles in national scenes, exerting a positive and effective influence on the course of the Shahnameh’s stories. The role and position of women in various aspects of life—including loyalty to their husbands and child-rearing, bravery and sacrifice in dangerous situations, chastity and valor in the realms of love and affection, cunning foresight, and wise consultation in important social and political matters, and even governance—are highly prominent. Above all, what most clearly demonstrates the brilliant status and position of the foremost women of the Shahnameh is their intelligent role and consultation in social and political arenas alongside heroes and kings, marked by utmost chastity, insight, and competence.   References The Holly Qur’an. Abbasi, H., & Ghobadi, H. (2010) A comparative study of the status of women in Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh and Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey. Quarterly Journal of Mystical and Mythological Literature, 6(19), 109–138. Akbari, M. (2001) Worthy and unworthy women in the Shahnameh. Journal of Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Tehran, (158), 61–81. Bassari, T. (1971) Women of the Shahnameh. Tehran: Daneshsara-ye Ali. Bastani Parizi, M. E. (2010) The passage of women through the ford of history (3rd ed.). Tehran: Elm. Christensen, A. (1958) Mazdaism in Ancient Iran. Tehran: Teachers and Translators Company of Iran. Ebrahimiān, N., et al. (2014) A study of the status and image of women in the Shahnameh and the Iliad. Roshd Journal of Persian Language and Literature Education, (111), 6–9. Ettehadieh, M. (1965) Women in Ferdowsi’s view. Payam-e Novin Magazine, 7(11), 38–48. Eslami Nadooshan, M. A. (1991) Ava-ha va Ima-ha (Sounds and Gestures) (4th ed.). Tehran, Yazdan. -------------------------------- (1996) Sarv Saye Fekkan (The Cypress, the Casting Shade) (4th ed.). Tehran: Yazdan. -------------------------------- (2003) Jam-e Jahanbin (The Universal Cup) (1st ed.). Tehran: Ghatreh. -------------------------------- (2012) Life and death of heroes in the Shahnameh (9th ed.). Tehran: Sherkat-e Sahami Enteshar. Ferdowsi, A. (1999). Stories of the Namvar Nameh-e Bastan (Vol. 20, 1st ed., edited by S. M. Dabir Siyaghi). Tehran: Ghatreh. ---------------- (2012) Shahnameh (J. Khaleghi Motlagh, Ed., 4th ed.). Tehran: Center for the Great Islamic Encyclopedia. Khatibi, A., & Ghaemmaghami, A. R. (2013). Vote and opinion. Nameh-ye Farhangestan, (5–6), 223–244. Mosahab, S. (1969) Women in the Shahnameh. Vaheed Magazine, 6(11), 945–949. Nöldeke, T. (2000) The national epic of Iran (B. Alavi, Trans., 5th ed.). Tehran: Negah. Rostegar Fasaei, M. (1990) 21 talks about Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh. Shiraz: Navid. Sarrami, G. A. (2004). From the color of the flower to the pain of the thorn (4th ed.). Tehran: Elmi va Farhangi. Sarafi, M. R. (2004) The concept of wisdom and its origins in Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh. Iranian Studies Journal, (5), 65–92. Wolff, F. (1998) Dictionary of Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh. Tehran: Asatir. Yazdanfar, S., & Ghehrman Shiri (2016) Social role, status, and position of women in Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh and One Thousand and One Nights. Quarterly Journal of Comparative Literature Studies, 4(2), 177–201.     <a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">*</a> Ph.D Student in Persian Language and Literature, University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran. a.vacegh@yahoo.com <a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2">**</a> Corresponding Author: Associate Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran.  oveisi@lihu.usb.ac.ir <a href="#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3">***</a> Associate Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran. vacegh40@yahoo.comhttp://literature.ihss.ac.ir/Article/46508Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh women wisdom prudence counsel.perInstitute of Humanities and Social Studiesپژوهش زبان و ادبیات فارسی1735-10302821-03952025-1023773148articleNewly Found Poems by Qasem Kahi in the Sharaf Collectionvahid bargegar ghahfarrokhivav.tanha@gmail.com1asghar rezapurianrezapurian09@gmail.com2mohammad hakimazarhakimazar@gmail.com3Ph.D Student in Persian Language and Literature, Shahrekord Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, Iran.Associate Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, Shahrekord Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, Iran. Associate Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, Shahrekord Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, Iran.Newly Found Poems by Qasem Kahi in the Sharaf Collection   Vahid Barzegar Ghahfarkhi<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">*</a> Asghar Rezapourian<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2">**</a> Mohammad Hakimazar<a href="#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3">***</a>   The Sharaf collection is one of the manuscripts preserved in the Library, Museum, and Documentation Center of the Islamic Consultative Assembly, compiled by Abd al-Rahman ibn Sharaf. The majority of this collection consists of the poetry of Jami and other poets of the 15th and 16th centuries CE (9th–10th centuries AH), though works from earlier poets are also included. This anthology contains poetry by many Persian poets from Eastern Iran, most of whom either resided in or traveled to the Indian subcontinent. Among the poets represented in this collection is Qasem Kahi. The Sharaf collection contains thirty-one ghazals by Kahi, eighteen of which are absent from his printed divan. This study shows how the Sharaf collection, compiled during the era of Kahi of Kabul, contributes to expanding his known poetic corpus. In this article, after a brief introduction and a review of previous research, we discuss Kahi’s life and works. Finally, we present the eighteen newly discovered ghazals, provide a short analysis of them, and mention reasons supporting their attribution to Qasem Kahi.   Keywords: 16th-century poetry, Sharaf collection, Qasem Kahi, Kahi of Kabul.     Introduction One of the ways to understand the thoughts, views, and works of the intellectuals of a land is through editing the manuscripts that remain from them. Manuscripts were compiled on various subjects, a significant portion of which belongs to literature. Literary manuscripts are themselves divided into various forms, among them being safinas and jongs (collections). Numerous examples of such manuscripts exist in archival collections, and each year, some of them are edited by scholars. One such example is a manuscript preserved in the Library, Museum, and Documentation Center of the Islamic Consultative Assembly, catalogued as No. 86730, titled 'Anthology of Poetry – Selected Poems – Part of Jami’s Divan – Yusuf and Zulaikha by Jami.' This manuscript was compiled by Abd al-Rahman ibn Sharaf and will hereafter be referred to as the Sharaf collection. Although its catalogued description suggests it was copied around 910 AH (1504–1505 CE), examination of the poets included shows that its date of transcription is closer to the second half of the 10th century AH (16th century CE). Among the poets given attention in this anthology is Qasem Kahi, from whom thirty-one ghazals are recorded. Kahi was a talented poet who held a special place at the court of Akbar Shah of the Mughal dynasty. When collating his ghazals with his printed divan, it became clear that some ghazals had not been included there. This prompted the question of whether these poems appear elsewhere or whether they should be considered newly discovered works. The more the research proceeded, the clearer the necessity of this study became, for presenting these newly found ghazals provides a foundation for further research into Kahi’s style and poetry, while also shedding light on the literary puzzle surrounding this relatively lesser-known poet of the 16th century.   Research history In recent years, notable research has been carried out on Qasem Kahi. Among these is an article by Hadi Hasan titled 'Qasem Kahi,' published in Ariana Journal, No. 12, in 1955. Another relevant article is 'Introduction to the Manuscript of the Masnavi Gulafshan by Kahi of Kabul,' authored by Mohammad Reza Abdi and others, published in Issue 36 of the Journal of Subcontinent Studies. This article was based on a doctoral dissertation on the same topic. Furthermore, Adib Boroumand published an article titled 'Poets of the Safavid Era: Abu’l-Qasem Kahi' in Vahid Journal, No. 18, which also forms part of the background of this research.   Life and Works of Kahi Professor Hadi Hasan of Aligarh University, India, wrote about Kahi in the March 8, 1955 issue of the Journal of Indo-Iranian Cultural Relations, and also provided an introduction to Kahi’s divan. Similarly, a writer named Sarwar Guya authored an article on this poet under a separate title, presenting valuable details about Kahi’s name, lineage, literary fame, death, burial place, works, and poetry. Kahi’s full name was Sayyid Najm al-Din Abu’l-Qasem Mohammad Miyankali, known by the pen name Kahi. In various Tazkeras and sources, he is mentioned as Kahi of Kabul, Kahi of Miyankal, Kahi of Samarkand, and Kahi of Soghd. His birth date is not precisely known and is not explicitly mentioned in the sources. His death is recorded by Reza Qoli Khan Hedayat in Fehres al-Tawarikh and by Etemad al-Saltaneh in Tarikh-e Naseri as occurring in 987 AH (1579 CE). However, based on chronograms and references in some works, his death is more accurately placed in 988 AH (1580 CE).   Books of Kahi Despite Kahi’s relatively long life and prolific talent, few of his works survive. The following are the known works: <ol style="text-align: left;"> <li> *Rafi‘ al-Darajat*: This is Kahi’s divan, comprising 1,728 verses of ghazals, qasidas, and rubaiyat. It was published in 1955 (1375 AH lunar/1334 SH) by Professor Hadi Hasan of Aligarh University based on a unique manuscript in India.</li> <li> *Masnavi Gulafshan*: According to Reyhaneh al-Adab, in addition to his divan, Kahi also wrote a masnavi entitled Gulafshan as a verse-by-verse response to Sa‘di’s Bustan. This work was edited by Mohammad Reza Abdi, Mohammad Amir Mashhadi, and Abdullah Wathiq Abbasi.</li> <li> A Poem on Enigmas (Mu‘amma): Zabihollah Safa mentions in his *History of Persian Literature* that Kahi wrote a masnavi on riddles in the meter of Sanai’s Hadiqa, with an example for each type of riddle. This poem was published in *Qand-e Parsi*, edited by Nazir Ahmad. 4. Other Works: Several other works are attributed to Kahi, though they are not extant. These include treatises on music, rhetoric and eloquence, prosody, and a work titled *Naqd al-Sha‘r wa Miftah al-Abwab*.</li> </ol>   Chronograms Composed by Kahi Among Safavid-era poets, composing chronograms (madeh-tarikh) was a form of literary prowess. Kahi was particularly skilled in this art, and several chronograms are attributed to him in various works.   Newly Discovered Ghazals in Jong-e-Sharaf The compiler of the Sharaf collection included thirty-one ghazals by Kahi. Of these, thirteen were found in his printed divan, while eighteen were not present in any known source. These eighteen ghazals, therefore, represent newly discovered works by Kahi. The ghazals are presented here in the order they appear in the manuscript, beginning with:   <ol style="text-align: left;"> <li>My stature bent from the weight of love’s burden.</li> <li>Why do I speak of my state to every unfaithful one?</li> <li>You are the sun, and I, like the dust upon the road, am beneath you.</li> <li>I am the one who longs for your gaze.</li> <li>With a glass of wine in hand, you, drunken cupbearer, have brought it.</li> <li>Do not say, O minstrel, that drinking is a sin.</li> <li>When the eye weeps, a sigh of pain rises from the heart.</li> <li>O cupbearer, I have been freed from fasting.</li> <li>Your sorrow was my companion in the nights of separation.</li> <li>Without your ruby lips, my heart turned to blood, and tears fell from my eyes.</li> <li>O, you who have adorned your shoulders with the musky hyacinth, the ring of it.</li> <li>O dust of the sanctuary of your holiness, my place of prostration.</li> <li>The aim of arrow of calamity struck our helpless hearts.</li> <li>Though the union with you is beyond our reach.</li> <li>No one suffers harm from the dog of your alley.</li> <li>From my weeping, my house has become like a bubble.</li> <li>O heart, do not be bound by the hypocritical ascetics.</li> <li>If a sigh escapes to explain the sorrow of the hearer.</li> </ol> It seems that there are many omissions in the divan of the poets of the Safavid era, and other poems by this poet may be found in other collections. Considering the poems found, the weakness of the editor of his divan in accessing various sources is evident, although the editor of the divan mentioned in the introduction that he had made many efforts to find other poems. It is also suggested that those who study the poetry of the Safavid era should not limit themselves to the poet's divan alone, and should also study such collections; perhaps a poem that was omitted from the poet's divan may be found in these collections.   Conclusion Paying attention to collections can clarify many facts in the field of literature for us, including the introduction of some of the quatrain collections that identify the original author of the poems attributed to Khayyam or Abu Saeed, or many collections that present new poems by past poets. The Sharaf collection is also one of these collections, the correction of which contain good findings, and the present writing is one of its outputs, from which the following conclusions can be drawn: <ol style="text-align: left;"> <li>In Jang-e-Sharaf, eighteen ghazals are attributed to Qasem Kahi that are not present in his printed divan. No verse of these ghazals has appeared in other known works.</li> <li>The existence of a ghazal explicitly mentioning Humayun Shah strengthens the likelihood that these poems are by Kahi, since Humayun was one of his patrons.</li> <li>Based on the style, language, themes, and the presence of his takhallos (pen name), these ghazals can be confidently attributed to Qasem Kahi.</li> <li>Some of the newly discovered ghazals are incomplete, with missing lines or phrases, which may be supplemented in the future as more manuscripts are edited. 5. Since in the Sharaf collection ghazals appear in shorter form compared to Kahi’s divan, it is possible that the compiler deliberately omitted some verses to include more poems. Thus, these ghazals may originally have had one or two additional couplets.</li> </ol>   References Ahmad, Nazir (2020) *Qand-e Parsi (Eighteen Literary and Historical Essays)*. Tehran: Dr. Mahmoud Afshar Foundation with Sokhan. Alem-Arayi Abbasi, Eskandar Monshi (1935) Tehran: Dar al-Taba‘eh Aqa Seyyed Morteza. Etemad al-Saltaneh, Mohammad Hasan ibn Ali. (1984). *Tarikh-e Muntazam-e Naseri*. Tehran: Donyaye Ketab. Badauni, Abdul Qader ibn Mulukshah (2000) *Muntakhab al-Tawarikh*, Vol. 3. Tehran: Society of Cultural Works and Dignitaries. Boroumand, Adib (1965) 'Poets of the Safavid Period: Mir Abu’l-Qasem Kahi.' *Vahid Journal*, No. 18. Farrokh, Mahmoud (1947) 'Bad-e Sharta.' *Yadgar*, Year 4, No. 3. Gooya, Sarwar (1931) 'Kahi of Kabul.' *Kabul Journal*, Vol. 1, Nos. 2–3. Hedayat, Reza Qoli ibn Hadi (1994) *Fehres al-Tawarikh*. Tehran: Institute for Humanities. Hasan, Hadi (1955) 'Qasem Kahi.' *Ariana Journal*, No. 12. Mashhadi, Mohammad Amir, Abdi, Mohammad Reza, and Abbasi, Abdullah Wathiq (2019) 'Introduction to the Manuscript of Gulafshan.' *Subcontinent Studies Journal*, Issue 36. Modarres, Mirza Mohammad Ali (1990) *Reyhaneh al-Adab*. Tehran: Heidari Press. Safa, Zabihollah (2007) *History of Persian Literature*, Vol. 5. Tehran: Ferdows. Schimmel, Annemarie (2007) *The Realm of the Mughal Khans*. Tehran: Amir Kabir. Yazdi, Sharaf al-Din Ali (2007) *Collected Poems*, edited by Iraj Afshar. Tehran: Sorayya.     <a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">*</a> Ph.D Student in Persian Language and Literature, Shahrekord Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, Iran. vav.tanha@gmail.com <a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2">**</a> Corresponding Author: Associate Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, Shahrekord Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, Iran. rezapurian09@gmail.com <a href="#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3">***</a> Associate Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, Shahrekord Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, Iran. hakimazar@gmail.comhttp://literature.ihss.ac.ir/Article/4725516th-century poetry Sharaf collection Qasem Kahi Kahi of Kabul.perInstitute of Humanities and Social Studiesپژوهش زبان و ادبیات فارسی1735-10302821-03952025-1023774981articleThe Conceptual Metaphor of “Joy” in Hafez’s Ghazals: A Cognitive Linguistics Approachjulia khani khalife mahallekhanikhalife@gmail.com1zohre nouraeeniaZohrenouraeeni@gmail.com2zohreh sarmadzohreh_sarmad1@iausr.ac.ir3Ph.D Student, Department of Persian Language and Literature, YI.C., Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.Assistant Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, YI.C., Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.Assistant Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, YI.C., Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. The Conceptual Metaphor of “Joy” in Hafez’s Ghazals: A Cognitive Linguistics Approach   Julia Khani Khalifa Mahale<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">*</a> Zohre Nouraeinia<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2">**</a> Zohreh Sarmad<a href="#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3">***</a>   Cognitive linguistics is a modern perspective and a new gateway in the interdisciplinary studies of linguistics and literature. One of the prominent theories in this approach is the conceptual metaphor theory, which is responsible for conveying meaning and has the capacity to transform abstract linguistic experiences into tangible and perceptible concepts. The present study, adopting a descriptive–analytical approach, seeks to develop a cognitive model for the conceptualization of joy in Hafez’s ghazals. Through examining conceptual metaphors and cognitive analyses, this research aims to uncover and explain how the concept of joy is manifested and represented in Hafez’s poetry. The findings reveal that systematic and applicable theories of conceptual metaphor, by providing a coherent and scientific framework, make it possible to precisely analyze and interpret the complex and intangible dimensions of joy within Hafez’s worldview. To express various aspects of joy, Hafez draws upon diverse experiential and abstract domains. In this study, different facets of joy are explored within ontological, orientational, and structural domains, with various sensory experiences and both positive and negative connotations employed to concretize the concept. Moreover, this concept is modeled within cognitive domains such as objects, animacy, nature, place, and food. In the orientational domain, conceptual metaphors of joy are depicted in two directions—upward and downward—while in the structural domain, the general meaning of joy is analyzed in correspondence with its related experiential domains.   Keywords: Conceptual metaphor, cognitive analysis, cognitive semantics, of Hafez's sonnets, joy.   Introduction Emerging in the 1980s, cognitive linguistics focuses on the relationship between language and mental processes, highlighting the role of metaphor in conceptualizing abstract notions. In Lakoff and Johnson’s Conceptual Metaphor Theory, complex concepts are understood through concrete human experiences. In Hafez’s Ghazals, joy—an abstract emotion—is represented through experiential domains such as nature, movement, light, and space. Adopting a descriptive–analytical approach, this study examines metaphors of joy in Hafez’s Divan, elucidating the interconnection between language, thought, and culture in the poet’s worldview. Problem Statement Joy, as one of the prominent themes in Hafez’s poetry, is examined in this study through the lens of conceptual metaphors to reveal the linguistic and cognitive mechanisms of its representation. By analyzing selected verses, the study assesses the extent to which metaphor contributes to the concretization of this emotion. The data have been collected through library research and analyzed qualitatively using document analysis. The ultimate aim is to elucidate the relationship between the metaphorical domains of joy and Hafez’s worldview.   Significance and Necessity of the Study This study is significant as it demonstrates how the poet’s lived physical and social experiences influence the formation of his cognitive system and underscores the necessity of employing modern approaches in the study of classical texts. Such perspectives enable the discovery of hidden layers within literary works.   Findings and Achievements The findings indicate that conceptual metaphor provides an efficient framework for a precise and systematic understanding of the subtle and intangible dimensions of joy in Hafez’s worldview. Beyond beautifying the text, metaphors serve as mechanisms for conceptualizing and processing abstract emotions, and their cognitive analysis paves the way for new and more accurate interpretations of the cognitive and linguistic systems of great poets.   Theoretical Framework Conceptual (Cognitive) Metaphor The theory of conceptual metaphor in cognitive linguistics regards metaphor as more than a linguistic device; it is a fundamental mental mechanism organizing experience and understanding the world. Abstract concepts are understood by relying on concrete, tangible experiences through “conceptual mapping” between a source domain (concrete) and a target domain (abstract). Lakoff and Johnson identify three main types of conceptual metaphors: <ol style="text-align: left;"> <li>Ontological Metaphors:</li> </ol> These represent abstract concepts as entities, objects, or tangible spaces, and include: <ul style="text-align: left;"> <li>Substantial and Objectifying: Giving abstract concepts concreteness via embodiment and materialization.</li> <li>Container: Representing abstract ideas as “inside” and “outside” based on the container schema.</li> <li>Personification: Assigning human traits and motivations to non-human entities.</li> </ul> <ol style="text-align: left;" start="2"> <li>Structural Metaphors:</li> </ol> Here, the structure of one conceptual domain is projected onto another, providing the framework to understand the target concept. Orientational (Spatial) Metaphors: Based on bodily and cultural experience, concepts are organized by spatial orientations such as up/down, in/out, near/far, reflecting human sensorimotor experience. Main Discussion Overall, the metaphors related to joy in Hafez’s Divan fully align with the mechanism of conceptual metaphor. In these metaphors, the source domain is more concrete and tangible than the target domain (joy) and easily transfers its characteristics to it. Therefore, Hafez uses elements of nature and the perceptible world—mainly accessible through visual, gustatory, and to some extent auditory senses—to describe joy. This enables the metaphors to represent the feeling of joy through concrete and comprehensible concepts for the audience. Concept of Joy Joy is a multifaceted and deeply rooted concept in ancient Iranian cultures, encompassing meanings such as delight, happiness, vitality, and festivity. This fundamental feeling plays a vital role in individual and social well-being and is linked in Iranian mythology to the creation of the world and humanity. In the Quran and mysticism, joy symbolizes divine mercy, love, and the highest spiritual degrees. In Hafez’s poetry, joy appears in various forms such as celebration, ecstasy, and delight, expressing profound human emotions and experiences closely connected to everyday life, religious beliefs, and emotional states. Joy metaphors in Hafez’s Divan, based on the theory of conceptual metaphor, represent the abstract concept of joy through tangible elements of nature and various senses. Joy is explained through structural metaphors such as “joy as light,” “joy as union,” “joy as return to origin,” “joy as divine sorrow,” and “joy as justice,” each illuminating different aspects of this abstract feeling and its connection to Hafez’s mystical and ethical worldview. Beyond their literary beauty, these metaphors play a crucial role in conceptualizing joy and deepening its understanding in relation to human experience. Hafez perceives joy as more than a simple emotion; it symbolizes freedom and liberation from worldly bonds, attainable through enduring hardship and suffering. Using vivid and concrete metaphors—such as human beings, buildings, gardens, time, and drink—he depicts the abstract concept of joy, making it accessible through visual, auditory, and gustatory senses. In Hafez’s poetry, joy combines light, divine power, and transcendence, metaphorically linked to “rising” and growth via directional schemas. This multidimensional view transforms joy into a profound, free, and meaningful experience that carries both beauty and inherent difficulty. Through his enigmatic language, Hafez presents joy as an invitation to unite with truth and detach from worldly attachments.     Statistical Report of Data The findings indicate that among the structural metaphors of joy in Hafez's ghazals, "union with the beloved" has the highest frequency with 10 occurrences. It is followed by "divine sorrow" with 3 occurrences, and both "suffering" and "freedom" appear twice each. The metaphors with the lowest frequency are "justice" and "light", each with just 1 occurrence. Regarding ontological metaphors, the domain of "place" has the highest frequency with 11 verses, followed by "plants" and "time," each with 8 occurrences. The domains of "objects" (5), "animacy" (2), and "food" (1) follow with decreasing frequency. Directional metaphors, such as "Great Name" and "height of joy," predominantly have an upward orientation, symbolizing transcendence and tranquility. Out of a total of 57 metaphorical instances of joy, 61.5% are ontological, 35% are structural, and 3.5% are directional metaphors.   Conclusion The cognitive analysis of joy metaphors in Hafez’s ghazals reveals a strong alignment with the mechanisms of conceptual metaphor theory, conceptualizing joy through both concrete and abstract domains. In Hafez’s works, joy is presented as a positive emotional element, vividly and comprehensibly conveyed to the audience through tangible imagery and diverse ontological domains such as humans, places, plants, objects, and time. The reciprocal interaction of joy with concepts like suffering, sorrow, union, justice, and freedom highlights the complex and multifaceted nature of this feeling. Directional metaphors are employed through upward concepts (e.g., divine power, heights of delight) and downward concepts (e.g., deception, darkness, evil) to reinforce Hafez’s ethical and humanistic messages. Overall, the conceptualization of joy in Hafez’s ghazals integrates mental, ontological, and spatial domains, offering a profound, transcendent, and tangible portrayal of this emot.   References Eysenck, Michael (1996) The Psychology of Happiness, translated by Firuzbakht and Beigi, Tehran, Badr. Hafez, Shams al-Din Muhammad (1996) Divan, edited by Ghazvini and Ghani, supervised by Abdolkarim Jarbozdar, Tehran, Asatir. Ghasemzadeh, Habibollah (1999) Metaphor and Cognition, Tehran: Farhangan. Ghaeminia, Alireza (2021) Conceptual Metaphors and the Spaces of the Qur’an, Tehran: Institute for Culture and Islamic Thought. Goharin, Seyed Sadegh (2001) Explanation of Sufi Terms, Tehran: Zavar. Kovecses, Zoltan (2014) Where Do Metaphors Come From? Contextualization in Metaphor, Tehran: Agah. Lakoff, George & Johnson, Mark (2018) Metaphors We Live By, translated by Jahanshah Mirzabeygi, Tehran, Agah. Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (2003) Metaphors We Live By: Language, Thought and Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.     <a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">*</a> Ph.D Student, Department of Persian Language and Literature, YI.C., Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.  julia.khani@iau.ac.ir <a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2">**</a> Corresponding Author: Assistant Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, YI.C., Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. z.noorae@iau.ac.ir <a href="#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3">***</a> Assistant Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, YI.C., Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. <a href="mailto:zohreh_sarmad1@iausr.ac.ir">zohreh_sarmad1@iausr.ac.ir</a>                              http://literature.ihss.ac.ir/Article/48751Conceptual metaphor cognitive analysis cognitive semantics of Hafez's sonnets joy.perInstitute of Humanities and Social Studiesپژوهش زبان و ادبیات فارسی1735-10302821-03952025-10237783109articleAnalysis of the Poetics of Imagery in the Surrealist Perspective: Nima Youshijsara hosseinisarahoseini1403av@gmail.com1Ph.D in Persian Language and Literature, University of Ilam, Iran.Analysis of the Poetics of Imagery in the Surrealist Perspective: Nima Youshij Sara Hosseini<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">*</a> Nima Youshij, the father of modern Persian poetry, was the first in contemporary Persian verse to engage with surrealism, with surrealist elements traceable in some of his poems and imagery. Although surrealism in Nima’s poetry constitutes a marginal current, this study, through examination of his collected works, concludes that from his earliest poems (“Afsaneh” and “Ey Shab”) to his last works (“Shab ast” and “Rira”), he consistently showed an inclination toward this movement. Unlike romanticism and symbolism, which appear in specific periods of his poetry, surrealist elements and surrealist imagery are consistently present in his work. This study, using a descriptive-analytical method, seeks to answer two key questions: (1) Did Nima have an inclination toward surrealism, and (2) Was surrealism a central or marginal movement in his poetry? The study categorizes Nima’s surrealist imagery into ten groups, demonstrating the validity of the claim that Nima Youshij tended surrealism. Keywords: Surrealism, Nima Youshij, Collected Poems, Marginal Movement, Imagery. Extended Abstract Surrealism, or the school of hyperrealism, is a literary movement that emerged from Dadaism in the aftermath of World War I. Both of these movements were rebellious reactions to the turmoil, mental distress, and social pressures that followed the war. Surrealism emerged around 1920, led by André Breton in France. The first surrealists were Dadaists who rebelled against everything, even their own intellectual foundations. This rebellious and anti-nihilistic nature led them to reject Dadaism and all nihilistic systems, starting a new path that they called surrealism. Disillusionment with Dadaist nihilism, despair and anxiety from World War I, the search for truth, attention to the war-free geography of the East, and familiarity with Islamic mysticism and methods of spiritual realization were some of the key factors that led to a departure from Dadaism and the establishment of a new surrealist intellectual system. Although surrealists today, like André Breton and his companions, stood in violent opposition to Dadaist nihilism, it should not be overlooked that Dadaism itself was not an entirely barren or unproductive movement. As "the essential prelude to the birth of surrealism," it can be said that Dadaism was a highly fertile source (Seyed Hosseini, 2008, vol. 2, p. 785). The modern man of the twentieth century, with his scientific and industrial achievements, awaited an all-encompassing flourishing in life; however, the experience of war revealed that not only had nothing changed, but humanity had also entered a more complex crisis. To overcome this, it was necessary to return inward, exploring the under-experienced realms of the unconscious, in search of new realizations. This shift in perspective among intellectuals and artists, more than anything, was a response to the widespread despair of the era and an attempt to avoid falling again into the grip of nihilism. Surrealism, relying on specific techniques, aimed to explain and elaborate on its theory. The core of these techniques is a return to the inner self and an escape from the confines of external reality. This study aims to trace the surrealist streak in Nima Youshij’s poetry as a marginal tendency compared to romanticism, symbolism, and realism in his works, an aspect that has so far been overlooked in research focused on Nima's works. A poetic image refers to a portion of a poem or the entire poem that evokes a scene, much like a painting or a photograph. In surrealist discourse, images possess unique characteristics that distinguish them from other types of imagery. Therefore, one may encounter surrealist images in romantic, symbolic, realistic, or surrealistic poetry. The poet’s goal in creating such images is to link the poem with abstract spaces beyond the realm of reality. This study examines Nima’s poetic images with this perspective and seeks to answer two essential questions: (1) Are there traces of surrealism and surrealist images in Nima Youshij’s poetry? (2) Was surrealism a central movement in Nima’s poetry, or was it a secondary, marginal one? Theoretical Framework Nima Youshij is not only a poet but also a theorist, with hundreds of letters, notes, and essays that reveal his poetic thought. These theoretical works can be regarded as his effort to present a poetic doctrine, which he then realized in his own poems. There has always been disagreement among critics as to whether Nima should be considered solely a poet or also a poet-theorist. However, it seems that Nima’s work cannot be reduced to mere poetry. He was confronted with the centuries-old, solid structure of Persian poetry, and the idea of changing it would have been impossible without theory, planning, and a revolutionary movement. Thus, presenting Nima as a poet-theorist is not a far-fetched claim. It appears that Nima’s innovation and creativity were facilitated by, firstly, his familiarity with certain Western philosophical theories and literary schools, which undoubtedly played a part in the philosophical and social changes in the modern man. Additionally, through translations and the influence of Western modern art, Nima was exposed to a fresh perspective that paved the way for his creation of a new foundation in Persian poetry. Categorization of Nima’s Surrealist Imagery Analyzing surrealist and non-surrealist imagery in Nima’s poetry led to a tenfold categorization based on surrealist features. These categories include: placelessness and timelessness, automatism, deliberate distortion of scales, dissolution of form, the marvelous and magical, disrupting causal relationships and focusing on randomness, authenticity of imagination, dreams and visions, love and eroticism, animism, and the beauty of tension and contradiction. These elements will be further analyzed in the study. Conclusion Nima Youshij was confronted with the ancient, immovable edifice of Persian poetry and knew that changing it required a revolutionary theory and movement. It can now be concluded, after a century of Nima’s work, that he was successful not only as a poet but also as a theorist. Surrealism, one of the literary movements of the 20th century, sought to break conventional linguistic structures and represent the inner world, and offer beauty in a tense, subversive manner. Through the study of Nima’s works, it becomes evident that surrealism was not a dominant movement in his poetry, but rather a marginal one. However, surrealist imagery can be found throughout his poetry, scattered across various works. These images, categorized into ten types, include non-spatial, individualized, dynamic, ambiguous, deep, melancholic, non-dramatic, multi-layered, and a blend of subjectivity and objectivity. References Arianpour, Yahya (1995) Az Saba ta Nima, Vol. 3, Tehran: Zowar. Al-Bouyeh Langroodi, Abdolali (2007) “From Yush to Jikour: A Comparative Study of ‘Afsaneh’ by Nima Youshij and ‘Fi al-Souq al-Qadim’ by Badr Shakir al-Sayyab,” Comparative Literature, 1(2), pp. 1–16. Akhavan Sales, Mehdi (2017) Innovations and Marvels of Nima Youshij, 7th ed., Tehran: Zemestan. Babachahi, Ali (1998) Isolated Statements: A Critical Review of Contemporary Iranian Poetry, Vol. 1, Tehran: Narenj. Brahani, Reza (1965) Gold in Copper (On Poetry), Tehran: Chehre Printing House. Bahram Pour Omran, Ahmadreza (2018) In the Entire Night: A Study of Nima Youshij’s Literary Views, 2nd ed., Tehran: Morvarid. Pourhamdollah, Mohammad (2019) “Nima’s Influence from Translations of Western Literary Works,” Journal of Contemporary Iranian Poetry and Fiction Movements, 1(2), pp. 49–66. Hoghooghi, Mohammad (2015) Modern Poetry from the Beginning to Today, Vol. 1, Tehran: Sales. Hamidian, Saeed (2002) The Story of Transformation (The Evolution of Nima Youshij’s Poetry), Tehran: Niloufar. Jourkesh, Shapour (2011) The Poetics of Modern Poetry, 3rd ed., Tehran: Ghoonous. Royaee, Talayeh (2019) “Poetics of Images and Objects in Surrealist Discourse,” Contemporary World Literature Studies, No. 58, pp. 103–122. Royaee, Yadollah (2016) On the Red Platform, 3rd ed., Tehran: Negah. Seyed-Hosseini, Reza (2008) Literary Schools, Vol. 1, 15th ed., Tehran: Negah. Shafiei-Kadkani, Mohammadreza (2011) With Light and Mirror, 7th ed., Tehran: Sokhan. Gheibi Hajivar, Nejat et al. (2018) “A Surrealist Reading of the Collection ‘Afsaneh’ by Nima Youshij and the Collection ‘If You Were Sleeping in Noah’s Ark’ by Sargon Boulus,” Journal of Comparative Literature Studies, 12(4), pp. 85–105. Fotouhi, Mahmoud (2006) The Rhetoric of Imagery, 1st ed., Tehran: Sokhan. Langroodi, Shams (1998) Analytical History of Modern Poetry, Vol. 1, Tehran: Markaz. Nass, John B. (1991) A Comprehensive History of Religions, tr. Aliasghar Hekmat, Tehran: Amoozesh Enghelab Eslami. Youshij, Nima (2014) Letters, Tehran: Negah. ----------------- (2015) On Art, Poetry, and Poetics, Tehran: Negah. ----------------- (2018) The Complete Poems, Tehran, Negah, Aragon, Louise (1967). Forgetfulness or Blanche, Paris: Gallimard.           <a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">* </a>Ph.D in Persian Language and Literature, University of Ilam, Iran. sara.hosseini42@yahoo.com <pre id="tw-target-text" class="tw-data-text tw-text-large tw-ta" dir="ltr" data-placeholder="Translation" data-ved="2ahUKEwiPmJT8tNKMAxWT4wIHHS1eM6AQ3ewLegQICBAV"> </pre>http://literature.ihss.ac.ir/Article/49920Surrealism Nima Youshij Collected Poems Marginal Movement Imagery.perInstitute of Humanities and Social Studiesپژوهش زبان و ادبیات فارسی1735-10302821-03952025-102377111132articleEcological analysis of the story collection «Woe to you if you hurt a bird» of Erfan NazarAhari based on mystical themesSedigheh Sherkat Moghadampardis_m29@yahoo.com1Associate Professor, Department of Literature and Foreign Languages, Allameh Tabatabaei University, Tehran, Iran.Ecological analysis of the story collection «Woe to you if you hurt a bird» of Erfan NazarAhari based on mystical themes   Sedigheh Sherkat Moghadam<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">*</a>   In recent years, the issue of environmental protection has been one of the most pressing discussions among scientists, and in the meantime, some authors have directly or indirectly highlighted the importance of this issue in their works. Among the Iranian writers, Erfan NazarAhari has used environmental symbols in his writings in various forms to express his mystical thoughts and implicitly mention the issue of environmental justice. The purpose of this research, using the descriptive-analytical method, is to examine the content and the main theme of the environmental elements of NazrAhari in the book «Woe to you if you hurt a bird» based on the views of ecological criticism. For this purpose, his plant, animal, and natural and eco-centered symbols, which are derived from his spiritual and mystical nature and its connection with nature, are analyzed and examined from the perspective of this approach. The obtained results show that the author of the work is trying to encourage the reader to be friendly and coexist with nature and the environment, which is a reflection of the manifestation of God.   Keywords: Economist criticism, woe to you if you hurt a bird, Erfan NazarAhari, nature, mysticism.   Introduction The world is threatened by environmental disasters, and the danger of environmental destruction has been heard all over the world. In these circumstances, science and technology alone are not enough to combat the global environmental crisis. Humans must change their culture and attitude towards the world. Literature, as an influential tool, can play an important role in reforming the worldview and the way society views existence. For many years, literary values did not pay attention to nature, and preserving ecosystems had no place in their thoughts. In 1978, he created his critical book titled "Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Ecological Criticism". This criticism has been discussed as an "emerging global movement" over the past three decades. After that, literary writers have referred to the preservation of nature in various ways in their works. In this regard, ecological criticism refers to the study of the connection between the environment and literature in any form. The influential Iranian writer Erfan NazarAhari has also presented his mystical-Islamic thoughts on the environment to the audience in his works.   Purpose and Necessity of the Research First, we specify that the purpose of this research is to examine the environmental symbols in the book “Woe to you if you hurt a bird” by Nazar-Ahari and its relationship with eco-critical criticism. For this purpose, we first analyze the environmental applications that include elements in nature, plants, and animals, and then the symbols will be examined from the perspective of eco-critical criticism in his writings, and finally, the connection of his mystical thoughts with nature will be examined. Also, based on this research assumption, addressing environmental issues is considered an important and vital issue in the whole world, and must be addressed. In fact, this movement is an emerging movement all over the world that has been formed as a reaction to the anthropocentric attitude of the majority of societies in dominating nature. Undoubtedly, environmental studies in literature increase readers' attention to the importance of preserving nature and raise their awareness of environmental protection. In addition, ecocriticism can be effective in healing the relationship between humans and nature. Since the environment has become a global issue, literature, as a tool for public awareness, has changed its goal from addressing trivial issues to important and vital issues. We should not forget that humans have only one Earth to live on, and we are on the verge of destroying our future. If you change your way of life, be careful of your blue planet.   Research Questions By resorting to ecocriticism, we seek to answer these questions: - What symbols in nature did NazarAhari use to express his mystical thoughts? - What is the relationship between these symbols and preserving ecosystems?   Research Method The general research method in this study is descriptive-analytical, based on the qualitative data collection method. The use of the qualitative research method in the present study is because we intend to analyze the content of the literary text based on a comparative approach -ecological criticism- and the data analysis method was carried out as content analysis.   Ecological Criticism Ecological criticism is an approach that studies literature and ecology from an interdisciplinary perspective. Using this approach, researchers analyze texts in which the authors reflect their environmental concerns and address the subject of nature. This approach was first proposed by Joseph Meeker, an American ecologist with a PhD in comparative literature, under the title "Literary Ecology" in the book "The Comedy of Survival: Studies in Literary Ecology" (1972) In this book, he analyzed literary genres from an ecological perspective. Without using the term “ecocriticism,” he raised questions about ecology and its relationship to literary texts, concluding that comedy, more than tragedy, highlights the ecological relationship between humans and nonhumans. In 1978, William Rueckert, professor emeritus of English and American literature at the State University of New York, coined the term “ecocriticism.” He borrowed the model of energy circulation from ecology to analyze the relationship between poetry, the poet, and the reader. As Rueckert puts it: “Energy flows from the center of the poet’s language and creative imagination to the poem, and then from the poem (which transforms and holds this energy) to the reader” (Rueckert, 1978: 103–110). In literature, writers use growth and energy, stability and instability, balance and disequilibrium from the perspective of nature. This approach focuses on the fact that the survival of nature depends on respect for the environment. Ecocriticism emphasizes the sense of responsibility of man towards the environment. Lawrence Buell, as a pioneer of ecocriticism, focuses on the environment and literature. The role of environmental imagination in literature is explored by Buell in Environmental Imagination: Thoreau, Nature Writing, and the Formation of American Culture (1995), to explore the changes that may appear in the interaction between mankind and the environment (Zariyya Habib, 1402: 5). Since the indiscriminate destruction of nature has caused nature to be silenced, Buell was determined to be the voice of nature, believing that: “Nature itself is the oppressed and silent class, and needs a speaker” (ibid.).   Discussion and Conclusion The present article examines the category of ecosystem in the literary writings of Erfan NazarAhari in the book “Woe to you if you hurt a bird” from the perspective of ecological criticism, and analyzes the place of nature and ecosystem in the creation of his writings in order to show the connection between the environment and literature. He is one of the contemporary Iranian poets who has always been concerned about the environment and has depicted nature and its elements in his writings. NazarAhari has given consistency to the form and content of his works by taking advantage of symbols that are all borrowed from the heart of nature, because these symbols express a concept of a natural phenomenon, and each of these phenomena represents a group of meanings. One of the characteristics of NazarAhari’s writings is the use of elements of nature and the ecosystem in contrast to anthropocentrism. This characteristic has distinguished his works from other writers. With a little thought in his works, one can feel the fascination with nature. This contemporary writer conveys his ethical and naturalistic messages mixed with mystical thoughts in the form of symbols drawn from the heart of nature to his audience. Her approach to nature, influenced by Islamic mysticism, is based on themes such as the power and role of nature in raising awareness of humans and the elements of nature as a reflection of the manifestation of God, environmental ethics, etc. Part of her writings is dedicated to the mystery and need of insignificant creatures with God. Commentary with this technique points to the equal status of these creatures with humans. It should be noted that this contemporary Iranian writer indirectly emphasizes environmental justice in order to dissuade her reader from the boundless desire to conquer nature. NazarAhari also tries to diminish the sense of superiority of man, who is accustomed to exalting himself over other species living in the biosphere. In the short story “Woe to you if you hurt a bird,” she beautifully makes his audience aware of the dangerous consequences that result from disrespect for nature.  Undoubtedly, from the perspective of environmental justice, man and nature share equally in nature. If humans try to destroy nature, nature will retaliate in turn. Our global crisis is not because of the way ecosystems function, but because our moral and cultural systems have turned to the destruction of nature with an anthropocentric approach. Overcoming the current crisis requires understanding our impact on nature. Reflecting nature in literature and promoting environmental ethics can play a very effective role in raising the level of awareness of readers. As an influential contemporary writer and poet, NazarAhari has attracted a large audience with her linguistic and artistic appeal and has crystallized a sense of love for nature in them. Since the alarm bells of nature's destruction have been sounded all over the world, it is better for researchers to devote their research to ecological criticism and related fields such as ecofeminism, eco-Marxism, and eco-mysticism.   References Adib rad, Narges; Yousof fam, Alieh; Jafarieh, Mahnaz (2021) The effect of different ecosystems on the poets of Sohrab Sepehri and Manuchehr Atashi from the ecocriticism point of view, Environmental Education and Sustainable Development 9(3),147-166. 10.30473/ee.2021.48125.2083 Baveja Devi, Kumari; Sharma, Geeta; Kumar, Kulbhushan (2023) «An Ecocritical Study of Anita Desai's Novel Fire on the Mountain», Social Science Journal 13(3), 2303-2307. Buell, Lawrence (1995) The Environmental Imagination: Thoreau, Nature Writing and the Formation of American Culture. Cambridge, London, England: Harvard University Press, Ecocriticism: A Study of Environmental Issues in Literature. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318350741_Ecocriticism_A_Study_of_Environmental_Issues_in_Literature [accessed Dec 17 2023]. Frederick Suresh (2012) Contemporary Contemplation on Ecoliterature, Authorpress, New Delhi, Heidari Hadi; Tavakoli, Azizola; Raei, Maryam (2019) A stylistic study of the Ahary's writings Journal of Comparative Literature Studies 6(2), 20.1001.1.26454882.1397.2.6.3.2 Judi, Mohammad Kazem & Heidari, Kourosh (). An environmental ethics approach based on Quranic verses and the foundations of Sadra'i wisdom to overcome the environmental crisis, Quranic studies 10(40), 467-486. Kianpour, Masoumeh; Fayyazi, Maryam (2016) Environmental themes in Gilaki's poems based on the ecological critical approach, Contemporary Persian literature 7(3), 43-69. Parsapour, Zahra (2012) Ecocriticism, A New Approach in Literary Criticism, Literary Criticism 5(9), 8-26. 20.1001.1.20080360.1391.5.19.7.7 Rueckert, William. (1978) «Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Ecocriticism ».Iowa Review 9, no. 1, 98-115. Shahbazi, Majid; Mirzaei, Ghasem ; Kia, Mohammad Mohammadi (2013) The Role Of Natural Elements and Symbolism in Islamic arts and Sufism, Islamic mysticism 32(8), 224-241. Sadrayie, Roghayeh (2018) Roots of Ecocriticism in the Symbolism of the Poems by Reza Barahani, Practical Rhetoric 3(1), 11-23. <a href="https://doi.org/10.30473/prl.2018.5486">https://doi.org/10.30473/prl.2018.5486</a> Taremi, A., & Fayyaz, M. (2022) Analysis of the position of the environment in Islamic mysticism (based on the outstanding works of Persian mystical poetry). Journal Of Stylistics Of Persian Poem And Prose (Bahar-E-Adab), 15(8 78), 201-221. Sid. <a href="https://sid.ir/paper/1032441/en">Https://Sid.Ir/Paper/1032441/En</a>. Nazarahari, Erfan (2014) Woe to you if you hurt a bird.Tehran, Norunar. Zorriyeh Habib, Shokofeh & Baradaran Jamili, Leila & Zarrinjooee, Bahman (2024) Eco-Grief Induced Crisis: Resilience of Eco-Trauma and Sense of Ending in Jonathan Franzen’s Freedom, Critical Language and Literary Studies 20(31), 187-207. 10.48308/clls.2023.233483.1213. Zolfagharkahni, Moslem (2016) Ecological Analysis of the Poetry of Forough Farrokhzad based on the Theory of Ecocriticism, Journal of Theory Studies and Literary Types 1(2), 115-142.     <a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">*</a> Associate Professor, Department of Literature and Foreign Languages, Allameh Tabatabaei University, Tehran, Iran. moghadam@atu.ac.irhttp://literature.ihss.ac.ir/Article/46341Economist criticism woe to you if you hurt a bird Erfan NazarAhari nature mysticism.perInstitute of Humanities and Social Studiesپژوهش زبان و ادبیات فارسی1735-10302821-03952025-102377133162articleAnalysis and Examination of the Manifestations of Individual (Romantic) Romanticism In the Poetry of Behzad and Partow Kermanshahiakbar shamlooak.shamloo@gmail.com1Assistant Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, Payam Noor University, Tehran, Iran.Analysis and Examination of the Manifestations of Individual (Romantic) Romanticism In the Poetry of Behzad and Partow Kermanshahi   Akbar Shamlou<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">*</a>   The Romantic movement marked the beginning of a new era in the history of intellectual modernization. This movement, whose foundations were laid in the 18th century, opened a new path for seekers of truth and their desires, driving them toward transformation and revolution. On the other hand, Romanticism, in contrast to the rationalism of Classicism, paved the way for new literary schools. This literary movement was primarily based on emotions, intuition, aesthetics, and inner feelings. In contemporary Persian poetry, Romanticism emerged as a literary trend expressing individual emotions and sentiments in response to socio-political transformations. Yadollah Behzad Kermanshahi and Ali Ashraf Nobeti (known by his pen name Partow Kermanshahi) were two poets of the Kermanshah literary school whose works prominently reflect the components and principles of Romanticism. This study, employing a descriptive-analytical method, demonstrates that elements of individual (romantic) Romanticism—such as an emphasis on nature and its elements, love, individualism, nostalgia for childhood, youth, and old age, as well as a critical perspective-are artistically and skillfully reflected in the poetry of these two poets. Expressions of sorrow over poverty and the loss of friends in Behzad’s poetry, along with an admiration for death in Partow’s verses, are among the most recurrent themes of Romanticism.   Keywords: Romanticism, Behzad and Partow Kermanshahi, individual (romantic) Romanticism, contemporary poetry.   Romanticism, a cultural, artistic, and literary movement that emerged in Europe in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, developed as a reaction to the rationalism of the Enlightenment and the rules of Neoclassicism. This movement emphasized emotion, imagination, individualism, and a deep connection with nature. Its principal characteristics include an emphasis on personal feelings and creative imagination, nature as a source of inspiration and a symbol of freedom and truth, individualism and heroism, nostalgia and a tendency toward the past, criticism of industrial society, and an interest in the supernatural. The entry of Romanticism into Iran occurred in the socio-cultural context of the Qajar period, particularly during the Constitutional Revolution. The translation of European authors and domestic cultural transformations created the grounds for the reception and re-adaptation of this movement in the Persian literary sphere. In Iran, modern poetry—especially through the works of Nima Youshij—provided a freer medium for the expression of emotions and linguistic innovation, paving the way for the emergence and development of Romantic forms, including the “individual” branch. This article specifically examines and analyzes the manifestations of “individual Romanticism” in the works of two poets from Kermanshah—Yadollah Behzad Kermanshahi and Ali Ashraf Nobati (Perto). Individual Romanticism, in contrast to its social branch, emphasizes the poet’s personal and lived emotional experiences. Hallmarks of this approach include the frequent use of the pronoun “I,” personal nostalgia, meditations on death, solitude, and an emphasis on earthly love. The research shows that, although these features appear fluidly across different works, identifiable patterns and recurrent motifs emerge in the selected texts that demonstrate the coherent characteristics of individual Romanticism in these two poets.   Discussion and Analysis of Findings In the works of “Behzad Kermanshahi”, natural imagery is interwoven with a heroic-national tone and occasional social elements. His poetry employs expansive natural images—gardens, spring breezes, winds, autumn leaves—and uses nature as a vehicle for nostalgia or social critique. In poems such as *Farvardin*, *Ashoub-e Kalaghan* (“The Uproar of the Crows”), and several selected pieces, nature simultaneously serves as a mirror of the poet’s inner state and a stage for expressing protest or longing. Behzad’s Romanticism is shaped in part by his historical experience, notably the aftermath of the 1953 coup (28 Mordad), which imbues his works with layers of grief and disillusionment toward the political and social situation. In this way, his individual Romanticism often becomes a form of critical expression that transcends purely private sentiment. “Perto Kermanshahi”, by contrast, presents a Romanticism that leans more heavily on local nostalgia and collective memory. His language is simpler and more musical, and his imagery frequently draws on the local landscape and cultural geography of Kermanshah—childhood homes, rivers, the sea, and the night—as repositories of communal memory. In poems such as *The House of Memories*, *Youth*, and other pieces recalling childhood and youth, the longing for lost times, the yearning to return to the pure days of the past, and the mourning for absent friends dominate. In many cases, Perto treats death as a form of release or passage beyond suffering; this attitude toward death, combined with nostalgia and natural imagery, defines the Romantic tenor of his poetry. A common thread in both poets’ work is the recurrent use of symbolic images—wind, gardens, rivers, seas, and night—that create symbolic unity across their texts. These images not only shape the narrative-emotional atmosphere of the poems but also, through techniques such as repetition of the pronoun “I,” emotional refrains, temporal shifts, and the blending of classical imagery with modern vocabulary, construct an internal cohesion that draws the reader into the poet’s emotional experience. Their similes and metaphors, simple yet potent, combined with a lexicon that draws on the classical Persian heritage, demonstrate the continuous interplay between modern Persian literature and its traditional roots. Nostalgia in these works manifests in three prominent forms: nostalgia for childhood and youth (recollections of innocence and vitality), nostalgia born of separation from the beloved (lamenting absence and the emptiness of home without the beloved), and nostalgia for departed friends and cultural figures (elegies for companions and luminaries such as Mehdi Akhavan Sales and Gholamreza Takhti). This nostalgic mode intersects with Iran’s historical context—disillusionment after the Constitutional period, coups, revolution, and war—thereby transcending purely sentimental individualism and reflecting broader historical wounds. Socio-economic dimensions also play a role in shaping themes: complaints of poverty and deprivation, loneliness, and fear of aging recur in both poets’ works. Behzad, in several pieces, laments financial hardship and the embarrassment of hosting friends in poverty, while Perto occasionally references destitution and displacement. These motifs reveal how individual Romanticism in these poems is intertwined with the realities of daily life and social circumstance. Formal analysis also yields significant observations: Behzad’s linguistic structure features lexical grandeur, a tendency toward epic expression, and frequent historical allusions. In contrast, Perto’s language is simpler, more melodic, and imbued with local color. This divergence in linguistic, formal, and thematic qualities indicates that individual Romanticism in Iran is shaped by regional context and biographical background, manifesting in varied forms rather than as a monolithic imported model. Alongside thematic and structural analysis, the study highlights the symbolic function of certain elements: gardens and nightingales as emblems of beauty and joy; crows as symbols of darkness and ugliness; wind, rivers, and seas as symbols of wandering, movement, and the journey toward death or life’s ultimate purpose. Interpreting these symbols within the specific contexts of each poet’s works enables a deeper reading of the emotional and historical layers embedded in the texts.   Conclusion In its final analysis, the article demonstrates that individual Romanticism in the poetry of Behzad and Perto Kermanshahi emerges not as a simple borrowing from the European movement but as a localized process shaped by regional history and personal experience. Raw personal emotions, poetic imagination, and nostalgic tendencies in these works are often intertwined with historical traumas (coup, revolution, war), such that Romanticism functions both as a representation of inner states and as a vehicle for critical-social reflection. Stylistic and lexical analysis further reveals that each poet shapes Romantic feeling through distinct linguistic and technical means. Behzad gravitates toward eloquence and literary grandeur; his use of elevated diction, epic imagery, and social references lends his poetry a historical hue. His post-1953 poems, in particular, show that his individual Romanticism is frequently connected to layers of protest and social critique. Perto, on the other hand, focuses in tone and structure on nostalgia and local atmosphere; his emphasis on Kermanshah-specific imagery, collective memory, and internal musicality reveals a form of Romanticism more oriented toward “local nostalgia” than direct social engagement. The study also shows that recurring images—wind, garden, night, sea, and river—play a central role in creating semantic unity within their texts, linking tradition and modernity through the blending of classical and contemporary vocabulary. The article’s methodology is grounded in close textual analysis of selected works from each poet’s oeuvre. The researcher chose representative poems—including *Farvardin*, *Ashoub-e Kalaghan*, *Bi To* (“Without You”), *Kolbeh-ye Man* (“My Hut”), *The House of Memories*, and *Youth*—and coded for qualitative indicators such as natural imagery, nostalgia, meditations on death, solitude, and complaints of deprivation. The frequency and mode of appearance of these elements were then examined. A comparative method was employed to analyze linguistic structures, symbolic imagery, and historical shifts in each poet’s language, revealing how a core of individual Romanticism transforms in relation to the socio-historical context. This combined approach facilitates a more precise understanding of the role of localization in the movement and the influence of regional variation. The primary limitation of the study lies in the narrow sample of two poets and its reliance on primarily qualitative methods; future research is advised to expand the corpus and integrate mixed quantitative-qualitative approaches. Undoubtedly, by offering a conceptual categorization and sample-based analysis, this study can serve as a foundation for the preparation of educational materials, the compilation of regional literary reports, the encouragement of interdisciplinary research on Iranian Romanticism, and the development of digital literary archives.   References Anousheh, Hassan (1997) Persian Literary Dictionary, Tehran, Organization of Printing and Publishing. Borghaei, Seyyed Mohammad-Baqer (1994) Famous Contemporary Iranian Orators, 6 vols., Tehran, Khorram. 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Kamran Sepehran, Tehran, Ghatreh.     <a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">*</a> Assistant Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, Payam Noor University, Tehran, Iran. Dr.shamloo@pnu.ac.irhttp://literature.ihss.ac.ir/Article/49462Romanticism Behzad and Partow Kermanshahi individual (romantic) Romanticism contemporary poetry.